German thinkers Karl Marx and his associate Friedrich Engels worked on developing their Marxist doctrine over the course of about a decade, from the late 1840s to the early 1850s. In their work, the authors formulated the concept of culture, sharing, among other things, views on the history of art, and examined the formation of art through class struggle, ideology, and the economic base of society.
We should admit that Marxism remains one of the influential ideologies today. Marxist approaches are a part of a great variety of sociological research. Most of the members of the Democratic Socialists of America, which reached about 100,000 members in 2023, support some ideas overlapping with Marxist theory.
Here in this article, we attempt to outline the key points of Marxist theory in relation to art and show how it explains the creation, distribution, and perception of art.
Historical Materialism
Marxist art history is based on understanding artworks within the framework of their historical and material contexts. Historical materialism, according to Marx’s concept, refers to the analysis of how art has reflected and responded to the material conditions and class dynamics of the times in which it was produced. This means that to understand the purpose of the artwork, we should explore the economic and social conditions of the relevant historical period.
Let’s take the modernist movements of the early 20th century as an example. If we look at them through the Marxist lens, we can see that these art movements may have been a response to rapid industrialization and urbanization in capitalist societies. In this way, artists perceived the changing socio-economic landscape, trying to address the problem of alienation and fragmentation experienced by individuals in modern capitalist societies.
Art as a Reflection of Economic Base
Marx and Engels assume that the economic base of society, with its mode of production and class relations, determines the superstructure—that is to say, politics, law, ideology, and culture. Art is considered one of the main components of this superstructure, being both a product and a reflection of the prevailing economic conditions. In their view, art doesn’t exist in isolation but rather is deeply rooted in the socio-economic context from which it emerges.
Hippolyte Adolphe Taine, a French historian and philosopher, supported this idea. Taine didn’t directly support Marxism, but his views regarding the role of economic conditions are aligned with Marxist theory. Therefore, we think it appropriate to provide his explanation, accurately expressing the essence of the idea.
Taine believed that one cannot consider, for example, the art of the Renaissance (the 15th-16th centuries period in Italy, distinguished by a brilliant flowering of sciences and arts, based on commercial capital) to be the result of a happy coincidence. Geniuses and talented people are always born in equal numbers, according to Taine. It all depends on whether there are suitable conditions for the development of their talent.
Art and Ideology
As per Marxist theory, every social system is characterized by the dominance of a certain class—the economically dominant class leaves its mark on the entire ideological life of society. However, the dominance of a given class is not eternal. It is replaced by another class, formed in the depths of the old society. This new class develops, grows stronger, and fights with the dominant class for its dominance.
The stages of class struggle correspond to the stages of art development. The dominance of feudal landowners in the Middle Ages corresponded to feudal art (the chivalric romance in literature, the Gothic style in architecture). At the same time, the bourgeoisie, organized into a class in the depths of feudalism, on its way to victory, also nurtured new forms of art (bourgeois drama, realistic novel).
The art of a class reflects the various stages in the development of that class. As long as a class is revolutionary and full of life, as long as it fights for its dominance, its art is full of life and optimism, revolutionary and cheerful. After this social class has fulfilled its historical mission, when it leans toward its decline, like the modern bourgeoisie, it gives birth to a decadent, life-denying art.
Examples in Art History
Marxist interpretations have proven to be valuable for getting insights into art movements in different historical periods. Let’s examine how this applies.
- Classical Art (800 BCE to 476 CE): In classical art, artworks were the means to reinforce the power and ideology of the ruling class. As such, Roman sculptures glorifying emperors reflected the political and social hierarchies of the time.
- Medieval Art (5th to 14th century): From a Marxist viewpoint, Medieval art highlighted the dominance of the church and feudal society’s hierarchical structures.
Thus, Early Christian Art with its religious iconography reflected spiritual power. Byzantine mosaics were the result of the influence of the Eastern Orthodox Church, while Romanesque monumental architecture and frescoes depicted the church’s role in feudal society. On the other hand, Gothic pointed arches and stained glass windows mirrored the period’s religious and social dynamics.
- Renaissance Art (14th to 17th century): During the Renaissance, art reflected the rise of individualism and the growing importance of wealth and power. In light of this, works by Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo can be interpreted as expressions of capitalist values and social relations that were being born at that time.
- Industrial Revolution (late 18th to early 19th century): During the Industrial Revolution, art tended to associate more with the grandeur and progress of industrialization, reflecting the dominant values of capitalism. Realism and romanticism reigned at this period, trying to express changes in the social and economic life of the society of that time.
- Modern Art (late 19th to 20th century): Modern and contemporary art movements, including Dadaism and Social Realism, are analyzed for their critiques of capitalist society and their engagement with social and political issues. For instance, the Dada movement’s emphasis on anti-establishment themes and avant-garde techniques reflects a reaction against the values of capitalist culture.
Critiques and Extensions
Even though Marxist interpretations of art history provide valuable insights, they are not without criticism. Some argue that Marxist theory can be overly deterministic, reducing art to mere reflections of economic conditions and overlooking its aesthetic and subjective aspects. Art critic Arthur Danto, for instance, suggests that this approach might ignore the individual creativity of artists and the intrinsic qualities of art.
In response to these critiques, Marxist theory has been supplemented with post-colonial, feminist, and critical race perspectives. Such supplements advance art’s analysis, offering a more comprehensive understanding of how art interacts with and challenges various forms of social and economic oppression.
Conclusion
The main idea of the Marxist concept is that art cannot be understood outside the society in which it develops, and tracing the art history of a certain period allows us to understand the laws of social life. Marxist theory does face critiques, but its emphasis on the socio-economic context of art remains a significant approach in art history.